Antecedents and Consequences of Work Stress Behavior

The purpose of this paper is to obtain a work stress model from scientific literature published from 2017 to 2020, where in one of the years, 2020, there was a covid-19 pandemic which had an impact on work stress. This study uses a literature review on work stress including antecedents, consequences, work stress management and the type of work/profession studied in research on work stress from 2017 to 2020. Based on the results of literature studies, the antecedents that most often appear in research on work stress are role conflict, workload, and leadership, while the consequences that often arise are burnout, job satisfaction/dissatisfaction, and intentions turnover. Work stress management involves individual and organizational levels. While the profession that has been mostly researched on the topic of work stress are paramedics and employees of the banking industry.


INTRODUCTION
Word stress comes from the Latin "stringere" which means "to pull tight". Seyle (1936) in Burman (2018) defines stress as a syndrome produced by various harmful agents. Seyle (1936) also describes stress as a non-specific response from the body to harmful stimuli. Stress occurs when there are demands from someone that exceeds the resources they have (Lazarus, 1976in Burman, 2018. Work stress arises because of environmental demands and different responses for each individual in dealing with these demands. Environmental demands that trigger work stress has developed. For example, the Covid-19 pandemic emergency that occurred during 2020 raised concern for many people who reported anxiety, depression, and stress, especially when they were already suffering from poor health (Brokks et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2020). This paper tries to add to the work stress literature based on articles published in the last four years, namely 2017-2020, wherein one of the years, namely 2020, the Covid-19 pandemic has occurred which has an impact on work stress for certain types of work. Through a literature study with a sample of articles for the last four years, it is hoped that a model of work stress can be obtained from scientific literature published in the last four years (from 2017 to 2020). The discussion about job stress consists of four parts. The first part attempts to explore the antecedents of job 1 Email: nuria@usm.ac.id 2 *Corresponden Author, Email: mugiharsono_fe@staff.uns.ac.id P-ISSN: 2580-6084, E-ISSN: 2580-8079 stress, the second part presents the consequences of work stress, the third part discusses the management of work stress and the fourth part deals with the types of work studied in research on job stress.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Based on historical literature, the term stress has been re-created in the form of a term that can be used to describe the force that produces or causes deformation (Harshana, 2018). When referring to organizations, the concept of stress is always accompanied by several definitions such as performance, motivation, and employee welfare. People experience stress in different ways and for different reasons (Kundaragi and Kadako, 2015). Reactions are based on perceptions about an event or situation.
Distress is a form of stress that views a situation negatively so that people feel depressed. Meanwhile, eustress is a form of stress as a result of a positive view of an event or situation, so that people do not feel depressed but feel challenged to do good.
Work stress is considered an important problem for organizations because it tends to contribute to organizational inefficiency, high turnover rates, absence due to illness, decreased quality and quantity of work operations, increased health care costs, and decreased job satisfaction and performance (Kar and Mishra, 2016). Job-related stress occurs when there is a mismatch between job demands and individual workers' resources and ability to meet these demands. Work-related stress can be defined as a negative psychological state with cognitive and emotional components that affect the health of individuals and groups (Hassard andCox, 2011 in Redin andErro-Garces, 2020). Luthans (2006) in Kar and Mishra (2016) defines stress as a response to certain situations or conditions that are determined by individual differences and psychological processes, as a consequence of environmental actions, situations, or events that place too many demands on a person's psychological and physical domains.

METHOD, DATA AND ANALYSIS
This research uses a qualitative approach. The collection of data and information in this study was carried out by using the literature review technique. This technique is done by reading, studying, and reviewing literature related to work stress. The literature review for this research is in the form of journal articles on job stress published in the last four years, from 2017 to 2020.

Antecedents of Work Stress
Research on work stress tries to explore the causes of stress to overcome the losses caused by the emergence of stress. Antecedents of job stress can come from individuals or organizations. Some of the antecedents of work stress that were used during the 2017 to 2020 study and which the authors identified successfully will be presented below.
The variables identified are antecedents of work stress and are factors that come from individuals, namely fear of the unknown (Sahni, 2020), self-efficacy (Hu et al., 2019, Park andJang, 2017), organizational citizenship behavior/ OCB (Rabenu et al., 2017), and emotional intelligence (Revzani and Pouria, 2019). In the research of Hu et al. (2019), self-efficacy plays a role as a mediation for the influence of leadership pressure on work stress, whereas Park and Jang's research (2017) shows a negative relationship between self-efficacy and stress. Research by Rabenu et al. (2017) examined the role of OCB as an independent variable and as a mediator variable. There is a negative relationship between OCB and work stress and it is found that there is an indirect effect of organizational justice on work stress that is mediated by OCB. The more organizational justice is felt, the more likely it is that OCB will increase. The increase in OCB further reduces work stress. Emotional intelligence in the research of Revzani and Pouria (2019) hurts work stress.
Antecedents of work stress originating from roles in the organization have been identified as producing work stress to a certain extent. Some of the antecedents of work stress that come from roles in organizations found in this literature study are role conflict (Harry, 2020;Naoum et al., 2018;Soelton et al., 2019;Yang et al., 2019), role ambiguity (Amirudin, 2019;Harry, 2020), distribution/management of responsibilities (Galanis et al., 2018;Hampton et al., 2019), and work obligations (Kongcharoen et al., 2019).
Antecedents of work stress can also come from organizational relationships with external parties, namely how the suitability of family demands versus organizational demands and between personal interests versus organizational policies. Some antecedents originating from organizational relationships with outsiders can be identified, namely family-role conflicts (Amirudin, 2019;Li et al., 2018), family role overload (Park and Jang, 2017), and work-life conflicts (Foy et al., 2018). In addition, job stress can be caused by career development, namely the career development environment (Naoum et al., 2018).
Sources of work stress can also come from physical and physical threats and violence at work (Allison et al., 2019;Rasool et al., 2020), financial problems (Kongcharoen et al., 2019), delays in information (Ajayi et al., 2019), the use of digital technology (Rafida, 2020), countermeasures, resilience extraversion, awareness and neuroticism (Duschek et al., 2019), personal relationships outside of work and lack of free time for family and friends (Galanis et al., 2018), customer misbehaviors (Hu et al., 2017), customer abusive behaviour (Kashif et al., 2017) psychological empowerment (Tripathi and Bharadwaja, 2018) and spirituality at work (Saxena et al., 2020). Some of the antecedent variables of work stress have never been studied in previous studies, thus adding to the research literature on work stress. A summary of the antecedents of work stress can be seen in Table 1.  (2021) The

Consequences of Work Stress
The consequences of work stress can be seen from both the individual and the organizational side. From the individual side, there are several changes that individuals feel when experiencing pressure or tension related to work, namely physical reactions, emotions, thoughts, and behavior. Changes occur in physical conditions to the emergence of various health problems, for example, the consequences of work stress in the studies that are made into the literature by the author, namely health damage (Petek, 2018;Sidhu et al., 2020), mental health and psychopathological symptoms (Fortes et al., 2020), emotional exhaustion (Kashif et al., 2017;Peasley et al., 2020) and burnout/fatigue (Chen, 2020;Park et al., 2020 Parveen andAdeinat, 2019). This has an impact on the incidence of individual costs (Molek-Winiarska and Molek Kozakowska, 2020) Changes that occur at the individual level will affect attitudes towards work.
Employees will feel bored and show stress symptoms known as burnout. When experiencing burnout, people will show absenteeism from work or increased absenteeism. Some of the antecedents of job stress related to attitudes towards work in the observed literature include job dissatisfaction/satisfaction (Darte-Baah, 2019; Heyder, 2019; Pandey, 2020; Park and Jang, 2017), reduced personal achievement and depersonalization (Peasley et al., 2020), career satisfaction, performance role and extrarole performance (Nisar and Rasheed, 2019), work motivation (Kongcharoen et al., 2019) intention turnover (Park et al., 2020;Yousaf et al., 2020), and job involvement (Klein et al., 2019).
In stressful conditions, employees will decrease their productivity according to the U curve. This means that optimal pressure will encourage optimal performance. Meanwhile, the pressure is low or the pressure is too big, the performance will decrease.
So that job stress has consequences on task performance (Naoum et al., 2018, Petek, 2018. Poor job performance by employees will cause inefficiency in organizational performance. Other consequences of work stress are work-family conflict (Rabenu et al., 2017), perceived organizational support (Saadeh and Suifan, 2020), and maturity to manage knowledge (Marques et al., 2020). A summary of the consequences of work stress can be seen in Table 2.  Marques et al., 2020 Source: processed anddeveloped in this study (2021)

Management of Work Stress
Stress as the pressure at work at a certain level can cause morale (eustress), but if the pressure is excessive or less pressure will cause negative stress (distress). Efforts to manage stress become important with the principle of how to manage negative stress into positive stress so that threats can be modified into challenges.
Broadly speaking, efforts to manage stress can be grouped into two types of strategies, namely coping strategies at the individual level and strategies at the organizational level (Moorhead and Griffin, 1995).
Individual-level strategies found in this literature study include relaxation methods (Bennion et al., 2018), coping strategies that focus on avoiding and decreasing sleep quality, physical exercise and family/friend support (Galanis et al., 2018), and strategies spiritual coping through mindfulness meditation/prayer (Walker, 2020).
Strategies for managing work stress at the organizational level can use additional tools such as communication systems and software, access to psychological services, change in leadership, provision of resources for employee welfare such as job training, and better work team coordination (Hampton et al., 2019). In addition, organizations can conduct psychological suggestion training (Chen, 2020) as well as psycho-social support, community support, and an effective system of organizational support (Sahni, 2020). A summary of work stress management can be seen in Table 3.
Some professions are only studied by one researcher, for example in the profession of daycare leader (Elomaa et al., 2020), library staff (Petek, 2018), the salesperson (Peaslay et al., 2020), women micro-entrepreneurs (Wijewardena et al.., 2020), auditors (Amirudin, 2019), immigration officers (Yang et al., 2019), employees in the electricity sector (Sidhu et al., 2020), lecturers (Rafida, 2020), cabin crewmembers (Hu et al., 2017) and sales agents (Park and Jang, 2017). Besides that, some studies do not specifically mention the professions of research subjects regarding this work stress. For example, researchers only mention that the research subjects are white-collar workers (Nappi et al., 2020) and company employees (Harry, 2020;Yao et al., 2020). A summary of the types of professions studied in research on work stress can be seen in Table 4.  Table 1 shows that antecedents that appear most frequently in research on Job stress are a conflict of roles, workload, and leadership. Each antecedent was used in four studies. Perrewé et al. (2012) in Henry (2020) states that role conflict refers to the mismatch of the requirements and expectations that employees receive from their supervisors or coworkers. The higher the role conflict, the higher the work stress.

DISCUSSION
Workload and leadership factors are thought to be related to the Covid-19 pandemic.
Research with workload antecedents was carried out in 2020 and research with leadership antecedents was carried out in 2020 as many as three studies. The Covid-19 pandemic has made changes in workload and leadership because the implementation of work from home which is carried out in almost all workplaces requires adaptation from employees and organizational leaders. Table 2 shows that the consequences that often arise are burnout (four studies), job dissatisfaction, and intentions turnover (three studies each). Burnout is a chronic affective response to stressful work conditions featuring high levels of interpersonal contact (Ganster and Schaubroeck, 1991). Research on burnout in the 1970s focused initially on specific professions such as nursing, social work, and teaching. The construct burnout extends to a variety of work fields that involve a certain level of interaction with other people such as the military, police, managers, librarians, and bluecollar workers. In research with consequences of burnout, the professions studied were paramedics and employees of the banking industry. In addition to burnout, job dissatisfaction and intentions are turnovers also a consequence of work stress that is the concern of researchers.
The results of a literature study on the management of work stress can be seen in table 3 The management of work stress can be grouped into two groups, namely management at the individual level and management at the organizational level. The two levels of work stress management must complement and support each other. When only one level is implemented without implementing the other levels, the results will not be optimal. Even the management of work stress is not successful.
In general, the results of research examining job stress in certain professions provide diversity in the types of professions studied. Many occupational professions have not been studied in terms of job stress. So that this becomes a challenge for researchers, especially in the field of behavioral sciences.
Table 4 also shows that the most researched professions on the topic of work stress are paramedics, namely eight studies, and banking industry employees, namely seven studies. This shows that work stress researchers are interested in making the paramedic profession and banking industry employees research subjects. The Covid-19 pandemic has become one of the factors that caused work stress for paramedics and banking industry employees so that a more in-depth study of work stress in these two professions is needed so that the research literature on work stress is wider.

CONCLUSIONS
Stress on individuals has an impact on individual performance, and in the end, will have an impact on the organization as a whole. Antecedents and consequences of job stress can come from individuals or organizations. Based on the results of literature studies, the antecedents that most often appear in research on work stress are role conflict, workload, and leadership, while the consequences that often arise are burnout, job satisfaction/dissatisfaction, and intentions turnover. Work stress management involves individual and organizational levels. The two levels of work stress management must complement and support each other.
Work stress can afflict employees of various professions. The professions that are mostly researched on the topic of work stress in this study are paramedics and employees of the banking industry. Work stress management is needed so that work stress can have good and beneficial consequences for employees of various professions, as well as for individuals and organizations.